Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Light

At Amazon you can buy tritium. Really.

Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen, the nucleus consists of 2 neutrons in addition to the positively charged proton. That makes it unstable, and tritium decays converting one of its neutrons into a proton and an electron i.e. beta-minus decay.

In other words, tritium is radioactive.

To my knowledge, tritium is rather expensive and in fact even in laboratories a rare sight. Most prominent uses is for thermonuclear weapons and fusion reactors, as it is the easiest reaction to fuse tritium with another hydrogen isotope called deuterium (one proton and one neutron) while releasing energy.

So, at Amazon you can buy tritium gas lights which are small glass ampules filled with tritium gas and a radioluminescent material.

Medium sized tritium gas light from FireFly.

The electrons released from the beta decay are stopped in the radioluminescent material which in turn will release the energy in form of photons in the visible spectrum (...what a fancy way of saying "to shine").
This is similar to an old-fashioned TV-tube, where an electron beam (electronically accelerated to about 15 keV) hits the screen coated with radioluminescent colors and makes it shine. The electron energy released by decaying tritium is lower, only 5.7 keV, which is so low they are easily stopped even in air.

The half-live of tritium is about 12.3 years, so in 12.3 years the source will be half as bright. This is rather amazing, the gas light shines and shines and keeps shining... no batteries, no recharging.

Several different radioluminescent materials can be added to produce different colors.

http://www.militarysystems-tech.com/military-gallery/betalight-bv/self-powered-kit-markers

I bought a couple of green ones, as well as blue, white and something in between white and blue. The green ones clearly have the best yield, probably also because the eye is most sensitive in the green region.

How bright are they? Well, clearly in normal ambient light, they are not noticeable. In the picture below I have three tritium gas lights in three sizes. The two smaller ones are green, the largest one is white.

Three tritium gas lights.
Wie Sie sehen, sehen Sie nichts.

But as the lights are dimmed and the eye adapts...

This is pretty much how the human eye sees them whey you are in complete darkness.

More or less as the adapted eye sees them. Light parts a bit weaker, and the dark parts brighter, the dynamic range of the camera is a bit narrow.

The gas lights are bright enough that you can recognize things in a complete dark room, like position of a bed, cupboard etc. The white one is not bright enough to see colors when the eye is in night vision mode, but still bright enough to read texts a few cm from the light.

Just to brighten it up, I made a long-term exposure (5 mins, iso 100) of the set.

Shine bright like a diamond.

It should be added that some of the sources which are sold on Amazon may be illegal to posses without a permit. The smallest one has < 1 GBq. The white large one has < 15 GBq.
In Germany rules are that closed tritium sources below < 1 GBq are allowed without any permit. Any sources above 1 GBq can be fined with up to 50.000 €. Similar rules are in Denmark, so these sources are kept at my University which has the necessary permits. (Used for teaching BTW, I am surprised how many students never have heard about tritium.)

Nonetheless, there is no way any dangerous radiation can escape the glass ampule within the perspex holder in normal operating conditions. Tritium behaves as hydrogen, so if one would break them open, burn the gas, condensate the resulting super heavy water vapor, and be silly enough to drink that super heavy water, you might receive a dose, possibly in the mSv region. (Most likely it will be automatically diluted before any intake can happen, so one really has to be very dedicated to be that foolish.)

Tritium is a waste product from water moderated nuclear reactors when in normal operation. Following the wikipedia article on tritium, over 41000 curies of tritium was released in 2003 which would be enough to make 1.5 million of the smallest tritium gas light shown above.

Anyway, I can recommend the small ones as geeky gifts for geeky physicists. There is some strange fascination in seeing this light with no batteries, or phosphorescence pre-activation - just radioactive decay and radioluminescense. One cannot help but getting philosophical contemplating the light. Where does the energy come from... and 1 billion beta decays per second (for a fresh 1 GBq source ). Think 1 - 0.5 billion decays per second for 12.3 years and then you have used up half of the tritium. Amazing.

Oh, and I submerged one into the bottom of my little aquarium. Green light shining on the ocean floor at night. :-)

[link to photo album]

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Visiting a Nuclear Research Reactor

This is a continuation of the list "10 things a physicist should have done during his career", which started with the very first post of this blog.

1. Split an atom
2. see Cherenkov light
   
   Now point 3:
   
3. operate a nuclear reactor
   (Note, doing this mostly results in fulfilling 1) and 2) )

I had this once-in-a-lifetime chance at our collaborators at the Department of Nuclear Chemistry at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, where they operate a 100 kW TRIGA mark II research reactor by General Atomics. They have ample amounts of experiments taking place at the reactor and at the neutron beam lines, such as Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), research of ultracold neutrons, do trace element analysis of mineral water and even wine.

The institute also offers a hands-on nuclear reactor training courses for students in nuclear chemistry and engineers from various companies (e.g. Areva). August 2011 I had a chance to realize this unique opportunity! I signed up for the 1-week practical course, which introduced me and 9 other (much younger) students to various topics around the nuclear reactor:

• lectures on reactor physics and radioprotection
• starting and shutting down check lists
• calibration of control rods
• fuel element inspection
• power regulation
• reactivity measurements
• and various neutron activation experiments

It was awesome!

The TRIGA research reactor at Mainz.

First part of the course was to get confident with the infrastructure around the reactor core. Every morning a long check list must be completed before start-up of the reactor. The check list involved a thorough inspection of the cooling circuits, radiation monitors and ventilation system. (It took us 1-2 hours to complete it.)

First page of the check-list which has to be completed and duly signed every morning before the reactor is put into operation.

We checked the power supply and the emergency power supply, double redundant ventilation, primary and secondary cooling circuit (double redundant too), radiation monitors, quality of water, warning systems...

Primary cooling circuit, double redundant. If one pumping chain fails, another takes over.

I was a bit surprised how inconspicuous the heat exchanger was, it's a rather small device. However the reactor does operate with merely 100 kW at maximum, so the amount of heat is really limited.

The heat exchanger is seen to the left. It interfaces the primary (marked with red labels) and the secondary cooling circuit (marked with blue labels).

Apart of the regular checks, the course also involved some other tests, such as quality control and inspection of fuel elements, several types of sample irradiation as well as calibration of neutron detectors and other reactor parameters.

The reactor core viewed from the platform on top of the reactor structure. Water is about 6 meters deep.

In the picture above, several tubes and rods can be seen sticking into the core. There are three control rods, two which adjust the power of the reactor and a third rod which is used for pulsed operation of the reactor. Several additional tubes are used for sample transport. Four horizontal beam lines (also visible in the picture above) are available for neutron extraction, and a special channel provides thermal neutrons for e.g. the BNCT experiments.
In between the long rods the fuel elements can be seen. A 30 cm thick graphite reflector surrounds the core.

Gone fishing. Here I try to put an Americium-Beryllium neutron source next to one of the neutron counters for a calibration test.

The water in the reactor pool has extremely high purity, and does not contain any trace elements which can become activated. Therefore no gloves are necessary when messing around with reactor pool water.

Using a waterproof video camera, we could visually inspect details of the reactor core, while it was shut down. In the picture below the top of some fuel elements can be seen and one of the control rods to the left.
Fuel elements are categorized as low-enriched or high-enrighed uranium (LEU or HEU, respectively). High enriched material is difficult to handle bureaucratically, since it is potentially weapons grade quality.  The fuel elements at TRIGA reactors are all LEU, but enriched to the maximum allowed ~20% Uranium 235. As a comparison, fuel elements for normal power production are enriched to about 5% U-235. A few grams of weapon grade uranium are still used for the neutron detectors.

We were allowed at some point to hold an unused fuel element, which are about 70 cm long, diameter of 4 cm. They are not "hot" in either sense, but pretty heavy for their size. When tilting them you can hear the Uranium elements moving inside. Some of the fuel elements they store were from the decommissioned neutron cancer therapy project at the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg (DKFZ), I remember I had my office just next to the reactor building while I worked there. As the fuel elements deteriorate, they increase in length which is carefully logged. When the length increase is goes beyond a threshold, or if any other defects are visible, the fuel elements will be replaced. (The price of one fuel element is comparable with that of a sports car.)

Visual inspection of the reactor core with a waterproof video camera mounted on a 6 meter long stick which is immersed into the reactor pool. The top of four fuel elements are visible in the foreground. Note the sporadic white pixels in the screen which is caused by gamma photons from the radiation from the decay of the activated metal structure.

We all learned how to start and shut down the reactor. Operation happens from a control panel with very nice analog dials and buttons. I just love that!

In particular I found it interesting to get a feeling of how the power and neutron fluxes change as you adjust the control rods. It is a very non linear system with hysteresis in the sense that a state at a given configuration depends on how the reactor was operated before. Power drops due to reactor poisoning as a function of time, which again is compensated by extracting the control rods. Eventually an equilibrium is established.

Samples to be irradiated are transported with a pneumatic system to the reactor core.

Once the reactor is operating in continuous mode, samples can be inserted into the core, which are irradiated with high neutron fluences. Afterwards the produced nuclei can be measured by gamma-ray spectroscopy.

Control panel for the reactor. The three control rods are operated by the three button groups
in the center of the panel. Left is the pulse rod, then there are two additional rods for coarse and fine tuning the desired reactor power. Here both the coarse and fine tuning control rods are extracted half way. (Or half inserted, depending on what kind of person you are.)

Prior pule operation, the reactor is put to 50 W level (i.e. producing less heat than a conventional light bulb). Pulse operation involves that one of the control rods (the “pulse rod”, specially designed for this purpose), is shot out of the core. The reactor becomes promptly critical, reaching a few megawatt for a split second, but due to the negative temperature coefficient of the reactor, the heat immediately makes the reactor sub-critical again. The result is a short intense spike of neutrons which is used for various experiments, and beautiful flash of Cerenkov radiation.





The negative temperature coefficient is a special feature of TRIGA reactors, which make them particularly safe to work with, since they simply cannot  meltdown. Any nuclear reaction simply stops if the temperature of the fuel elements goes above a few 100 degrees C.

Anyway, this was a very interesting course, I framed in the diploma I got, its hanging in my office. :)